A History of Western Music: W. W. Norton StudySpace
Chapter 1 Music in Antiquity
Music in Antiquity
Only historical traces of the music from past eras survive.
Physical objects, such as musical instruments
Visual images of musicians and instruments
Writings about music and musicians
Music as preserved in notation
Ancient Greek music influenced Western music.
The ancient Greeks left more surviving evidence than other ancient cultures.
Western music has its roots in antiquity, espeA-ciA-ally in ancient Greek theoretical writings.
Prehistoric Music-Making
Before 36,000 b.c.e.: Whistles and flutes made from animal bones survive from the Stone Age in Europe (HWM Figure 1.1).
Sixth millennium b.c.e.: Images in Turkish cave paintings show drummers accompanying dancers and driving out game.
Fourth millennium b.c.e.
Surviving Bronze Age metal instruments include bells, cymbals, rattles, and horns.
Stone carvings show plucked stringed instruments.
Ancient Mesopotamia (see map, HWM Figure 1.2)
Home to several cultures, the first true cities, and the first known forms of writing (cuneiform)
Some clay tablets written in cuneiform mention music.
Pictures show music-making with instruments.
Surviving instruments include lyres and harps.
Lyres (see HWM Figures 1.3 and 1.4)
Strings run parallel to the resonating soundboard.
A crossbar supported by two arms secures the strings.
The number of strings varies.
Harps
Strings are perpendicular to the soundboard.
A neck attached to the soundbox secures the strings.
Other instruments from the period include lutes, pipes, drums, bells, and other percussion instruments.
The ruling class left the most evidence because they could buy instruments and hire scribes.
Most uses of music in ancient Mesopotamia were similar to those of today.
For rituals, including weddings and funerals
In daily life, including nursery songs, work songs, and dance music
For entertainment at feasts
For religious ceremonies and processions
Epics sung with instrumental accompaniment
Written documentation from Mesopotamia
Word lists from ca. 2500 include terms for instruments, tuning procedures, performers, techniques, and genres (types of musical composition).
The earliest known composer is Enheduanna (fl. ca. 2300 b.c.e.).
She was a high priestess at Ur.
She composed hymns (songs to a god) to the god and goddess of the moon.
Only the texts of her hymns survive.
Babylonian musicians began writing about music ca. 1800 b.c.e.
Instructions for tuning a string instrument using a seven-note diatonic scale (playable on the white keys of a piano)
Interval theory, with names of intervals used to create the earliest known notation (see HWM Figure 1.5)
HWM Figure 1.5 dates from ca. 1400- 1250 b.c.e.
Not enough is known about the notation to transcribe it.
The poem seems to be a hymn to the wife of the moon god.
Although Babylonians had a form of notation, musicians most likely performed from memory, improvised, or used notation as a recipe for reconstructing a melody.
Babylonian music theory seems to have influenced later Greek theory.
Other Ancient Civilizations
Instruments, images, and writings about the musical cultures of India and China survive, but they seem not to have influenced Greek or European music.
Egyptian sources include artifacts, paintings, and hieroglyphic writings in tombs, but scholars have not been able to determine whether there is any notated music.
The Bible describes religious musical practices in ancient Israel.
Ancient Greece
Greek civilization encompassed a wide area, including much of Asia Minor, southern Italy, and colonies ringing the Mediterranean and Black Seas (see HWM Figure 1.6).
Greece is the earliest civilization to leave enough evidence to construct a well-rounded view of musical culture.
Evidence can be found in numerous images, a few surviving instruments, writings, and over forty examples of music in a notation that we can read.
Greek Instruments and Their Uses
Evidence of Greek instruments survives in writings, archaeological remains, and hundreds of images on pots.
The aulos (see HWM Figure 1.7)
A reed instrument
The body consisted of two pipes with fingerholes.
Images show the two pipes being fingered the same, but they could produce octaves, parallel fifths or fourths, or a drone as well as unisons.
The aulos was used in the worship of Dionysus.
Dionysus was the god of fertility and wine, hence the drinking scene in HWM Figure 1.7.
The aulos accompanied or alternated with choruses in the great tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides that were written for Dionysian festivals.
The lyre (see HWM Figure 1.8)
There were several types, but they usually had seven strings and would be strummed with a plectrum, or pick.
The player held the instrument in front, supporting it on the hip and from a strap around the left wrist.
Both hands were free to touch the strings.
The right hand strummed the strings.
The fingers of the left hand touched the strings, perhaps to dampen them or to create harmonics.
The lyre was associated with Apollo, god of light, prophecy, learning, and the arts (especially music and poetry).
Both men and women played the lyre.
Learning to play the lyre was a core element of education in Athens.
The lyre was used to accompany dancing, singing, weddings, and the recitation of epic poetry such as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
The lyre was also played for recreation.
The kithara
A large lyre played standing up (see HWM Figure 1.9)
Used in processions, sacred ceremonies, and in the theater
Other instruments include, harps, panpipes, horns, an early form of organ, and a variety of percussion.
Performance practices
Despite having a well-developed form of notation, musicians primarily learned music by ear, played by memory, and improvised using formulas.
By the sixth century b.c.e. or earlier, aulos and kithara were played as solo instruments.
Contests and music festivals became popular after the fifth century b.c.e.
Accounts of musical competitions describe performances for aulos.
HWM Figure 1.9 comes from a jar (amphora) awarded as a prize in a contest.
Famous artists performed for large crowds, gave concert tours, and demanded high fees from wealthy patrons.
Women were excluded from competition but could perform recitals, often to critical acclaim.
Other than the virtuoso soloists, the majority of professional performers were slaves or servants.
Greek Musical Thought
We know about Greek thought through two kinds of writings:
Philosophical doctrines that describe the nature of music, its effects, and its proper uses
Systematic descriptions of the materials of music (music theory)
The most influential writings on the uses and effects of music are:
Republic and Timaeus by Plato (ca. 429-347 b.c.e.)
Politics by Aristotle (384-322 b.c.e.)
Greek music theory evolved continuously during the time between two figures:
Pythagoras (d. ca. 500 b.c.e.), the founder of Greek music theory
Aristides Quintilianus (fourth century c.e.), the last important writer
Music in Greek mythology
Gods and demigods were musical practitioners.
The word music (from mousikAc) comes from the Muses.
Music and poetry
Music as a performing art was called melos (the root of the word melody).
Music was monophonic, consisting of one melodic line.
Instruments may have embellished the melody while a soloist or chorus sang the original version, creating heterophony, or played an independent part, creating polyphony.
Music and poetry were nearly synonymous.
There was no word for artful speech without music.
"Lyric" poetry meant poetry sung to the lyre.
"Tragedy" incorporates a noun meaning "the art of singing."
Many Greek words for poetic types are musical termsa€”e.g., hymn.
Music and number
Pythagoras and his followers recognized the numerical relationships that underlay musical intervalsa€”e.g., 2:1 results in an octave, 3:2 a fifth, and 4:3 a fourth.
Harmonia was the concept of the unification of parts in an orderly whole.
The term applied to the order of the universe.
Music was allied to astronomy through the notion of harmonia.
Mathematical laws were the underpinnings of musical intervals and the movements of heavenly bodies alike.
From Plato's time until the beginning of modern astronomy, philosophers believed in a "harmony of the spheres," unheard music created by the movement of planets and other heavenly bodies.
Music and ethos
Greek writers believed that music could affect ethos, one's ethical character.
Music's mathematical laws permeated the visible and invisible world, including the human soul.
The parts of the human soul could be restored to a healthy balance (harmony) by the correct type of music.
Aristotle's Politics (see HWM Source Reading, page 14)
Sets out a theory of how music affects behavior
Mixolydian, Dorian, and Phrygian melodies each had specific effects on the listener.
The concept of specific modes probably encompassed melodic turns, style, and rhythms.
Music in education
Plato and Aristotle believed that education should stress gymnastics (to discipline the body) and music (to discipline the mind).
Plato's Republic and Laws
Urges a balance between gymnastics and music
Argues that only certain types of music are suitable
The Dorian and Phrygian harmoniai fostered the virtues of temperance and courage.
Music should not have complex scales or mixed genres, rhythms, or instruments.
Changes in musical conventions could lead to lawlessness in art and anarchy in society.
Aristotle's Politics
Aristotle's uses for music are less restrictive than Plato's.
Music could be used for enjoyment as well as education.
Music and drama can purge negative emotions.
He discourages sons of free citizens from professional training or from aspiring to virtuosity.
Greek Music Theory
Theorists and their writings
No writings by Pythagoras survive.
Aristoxenus, Harmonic Elements and Rhythmic Elements (ca. 330 b.c.e.)
Pupil of Aristotle
Earliest surviving theoretical works
Later writers
Cleonides
Ptolemy
Aristides Quintilianus
These writers defined concepts still used today.
Aristoxenus
Rhythmic Elements shows that musical rhythm was closely aligned with poetic rhythm.
Harmonic Elements distinguishes between two types of movement.
Continuous movement: gliding up and down as in speech
Diastematic (or intervallic) movement: voice moves between sustained pitches separated by discrete intervals
He defines note, interval, and scale.
Intervals are defined abstractly (versus Babylonian definition based on specific strings of the lyre or harp).
Tetrachord theory
Tetrachord: four notes spanning a perfect fourth
The outer notes of the tetrachord are stationary in pitch, while the inner two notes can form different intervals.
Typically, the smallest intervals are at the bottom.
Three genera (classes) of tetrachords (see HWM Example 1.1)
Diatonic: two whole tones and a semitone
Chromatic: minor third and two semitones
Enharmonic: major third and two quarter tones
All intervals can vary slightly, giving "shades" within each genus.
Aristoxenus said the diatonic was the oldest; the enharmonic, the most difficult to hear.
Greater Perfect System (see HWM Example 1.2)
Tetrachords put together to cover a larger range
Tetrachords with common outer notes are conjunct.
Tetrachords with a tone between them are disjunct.
One added note at the bottom (Proslambanomenos)
The middle note was called mese.
Each of the four tetrachords was named.
Meson: the tetrachord beginning with mese and descending
Diezeugmenon (disjunct): beginning a tone above mese and ascending
Hypaton (conjunct): the tetrachord below Meson
Hyperbolaion (conjunct): the tetrachord above Diezeugmenon
Although the pitches had names, there was no absolute fixed pitch.
Species (the ways that perfect consonances could be divided)
Cleonides noted that the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave could be subdivided in a limited number of ways in the diatonic genus.
The perfect fourth could be divided three ways (see HWM Example 1.3a).
S - T - T (semitone - tone - tone)
T - T - S
T - S - T
The perfect fifth has four species (see HWM Example 1.3b).
The octave has seven species (see HWM Example 1.3c).
Octave species result from combinations of species of fourth and fifth.
Cleonides used names the "ancients" supposedly used:
Mixolydian: B-b
Lydian: c-c'
Phrygian: d-d'
Dorian: e-e'
Hypolydian: f-f'
Hypophrygian: g-g'
Hypodorian: a-a'
The Babylonians recognized the same diatonic tunings.
Medieval theorists used the same names for their modes, but they do not match Cleonides' species.
Other meanings for the names used by Cleonides
Styles of music practiced in different regions of the Greek world (see map, HWM Figure 1.6)
Harmoniai
Scale types or melodic styles
Plato and Aristotle used the names in the sense of scale types or melodic styles.
Prefixes (such as Hypo) multiplied the number of names.
Tonoi (singular: tonos)
Scale or set of pitches within a specific range
Associated with character and mood, the higher tonoi being more energetic.
Ancient Greek Music
Surviving pieces and fragments
About forty-five survive.
Most are from relatively late periods, i.e., from the fifth century b.c.e. to the fourth.
All employ a notation that places letters above the text to indicate notes and durations.
The earliest fragments are choruses from plays by Euripides (ca. 485-406 b.c.e.).
Later works include hymns and an epitaph on a tombstone.
The musical style is consistent with music theory of the time.
NAWM 1 Epitaph of Seikilos (see HWM Figure 1.10 and Example 1.4)
HWM Example 1.4 shows the Greek notation above the transcription.
Alphabetical signs indicate the notes.
Marks indicating doubling or tripling of the basic rhythmic unit are above the alphabetical signs.
Melody
Diatonic
The range is an octave.
The octave species is Phrygian.
The tonos is Iastian, a transposed version of HWM Example 1.2.
The melody balances rising and falling gestures with each line.
Text
In keeping with the Iastian tonos, the text suggests moderation.
The epitaph urges readers to be lighthearted while acknowledging death.
NAWM 2 Fragment from Euripides' Orestes
Survives on a scrap of papyrus from ca. 200 b.c.e. (see HWM Figure 1.11)
Only the middle portion of its seven lines of text survives.
The style is consistent with descriptions of Euripides' music.
Combines diatonic with either chromatic or enharmonic genus
Instrumental notes are interspersed with vocal.
The text is a chorus for women.
The meter of the text uses dochmaic foot, used for passages of intense agitation and grief.
Chromatic or enharmonic notes reinforce the ethos of the poetry.
Music in Ancient Rome
Less evidence survives for music of ancient Rome than for ancient Greece.
No settings of texts survive.
Images, written descriptions, and some instruments are all that remain.
Romans took much of their musical culture from Greece.
Lyric poetry was often sung.
Cicero, Quintilian, and others believed cultured people should be educated in music.
In the first and second centuries c.e., when other aspects of Greek culture were imported, virtuosity, choruses, and competitions became popular.
Roman instruments
The tibia, an instrument similar to the aulos, was used for ceremonies and theater.
Other instruments included the tuba, a long straight trumpet.
The most characteristic instruments were the cornu and buccina, circular horns.
HWM Figure 1.12 shows tibias and cornus used in a funeral procession.
Production of music declined when the Roman economy declined.
Roman music seems not to have influenced later musical developments in Europe.
The Greek Heritage
Many characteristics of Greek music continued in later Western music.
The meter and rhythm of the text influenced the music.
Memory and musical conventions played an important part in many later traditions.
Greek musical thought influenced later generations.
Plato's idea that music can influence character persists today.
Medieval music theory and church music used Greek concepts.
Opera composers looked to the Greek tragedies for models of how to combine music and drama.
In the twentieth century, composers looked to the Greeks for inspiration.
2 The Christian Church in the First Millennium
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CONNECT
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Composer biographies present brief overview of the lives of many of the composers presented in your textbook.
3 Roman Liturgy and Chant
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4 Song and Dance Music in the Middle Ages
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5 Polyphony through the Thirteenth Century
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Chapter 6 French and Italian Music in the Fourteenth Century
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Chapter 7 Music and the Renaissance
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The Styles Quizzes in the Connect section of the site test your understanding of major concepts pertaining to genres and styles. These quizzes integrate musical excerpts and graphics. There are two quizzes for each era; one refers to a work in the anthology and the second one presents a “mystery” work for you to identify. The quizzes will test your knowledge of the musical concepts across several chapters.
Composer biographies present brief overview of the lives of many of the composers presented in your textbook.
Chapter
8
England and Burgundy in the Fifteenth Century
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Chapter 9
Franco-Flemish Composers, 1450-1520
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Chapter 10 Sacred Music in the Era of the Reformation
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Chapter 11 Madrigal and Secular Song in the Sixteenth Century
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Chapter 12 The Rise of Instrumental Music
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Chapter 13 New Styles in the Seventeenth Century
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Chapter 14 The Invention of Opera
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Chapter 15 Music for Chamber and Church in the Early Seventeenth Century
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Chapter 16 France, England, Spain, and the New World in the Seventeenth Century
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Chapter
17
Italy and Germany in the Late Seventeenth Century
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Chapter
18
The Early Eighteenth Century in Italy and France
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Chapter
19
German Composers of the Late Baroque
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Chapter
20
Musical Taste and Style in the Enlightenment
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Chapter 21 Opera and Vocal Music in the Early Classic Period
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Chapter 22 Sonata, Symphony, and Concerto at Midcentury
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Chapter 23 Classical Music in the Late Eighteenth Century
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Chapter 24 Revolution and Change
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Chapter
25
Song and Piano Music
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Chapter
26
Orchestral, Chamber, and Choral Music
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Chapter 27 Romantic Opera and Musical Theater to Midcentury
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Chapter
28
Opera and Musical Theater in the Later Nineteenth Century
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Chapter 29 Late Romanticism in Germany and Austria
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Chapter 30 Diverging Traditions in the Later Nineteenth Century
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Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
LEARN
The chapter and listening quizzes will help you practice for exams that cover the recordings, textbook and anthology. You can take these quizzes as often as you like, then send them to your instructor’s grade book, and keep track of your scores in your own Norton grade book.
Use the FlashCards to check your retention and understanding of the major terms, presented in boldface print in your textbook. You can print them out or download them to your computer.
CONNECT
The Styles Quizzes in the Connect section of the site test your understanding of major concepts pertaining to genres and styles. These quizzes integrate musical excerpts and graphics. There are two quizzes for each era; one refers to a work in the anthology and the second one presents a “mystery” work for you to identify. The quizzes will test your knowledge of the musical concepts across several chapters.
Composer biographies present brief overview of the lives of many of the composers presented in your textbook.
Chapter 31
The Early Twentieth Century
If you have not already done so, activate the registration code found in your textbook and listen to the selections on this site, or refer to your set of audio CDs.
Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
LEARN
The chapter and listening quizzes will help you practice for exams that cover the recordings, textbook and anthology. You can take these quizzes as often as you like, then send them to your instructor’s grade book, and keep track of your scores in your own Norton grade book.
Use the FlashCards to check your retention and understanding of the major terms, presented in boldface print in your textbook. You can print them out or download them to your computer.
CONNECT
The Styles Quizzes in the Connect section of the site test your understanding of major concepts pertaining to genres and styles. These quizzes integrate musical excerpts and graphics. There are two quizzes for each era; one refers to a work in the anthology and the second one presents a “mystery” work for you to identify. The quizzes will test your knowledge of the musical concepts across several chapters.
Composer biographies present brief overview of the lives of many of the composers presented in your textbook.
Chapter 32
Modernism and the Classical Tradition
If you have not already done so, activate the registration code found in your textbook and listen to the selections on this site, or refer to your set of audio CDs.
Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
LEARN
The chapter and listening quizzes will help you practice for exams that cover the recordings, textbook and anthology. You can take these quizzes as often as you like, then send them to your instructor’s grade book, and keep track of your scores in your own Norton grade book.
Use the FlashCards to check your retention and understanding of the major terms, presented in boldface print in your textbook. You can print them out or download them to your computer.
CONNECT
The Styles Quizzes in the Connect section of the site test your understanding of major concepts pertaining to genres and styles. These quizzes integrate musical excerpts and graphics. There are two quizzes for each era; one refers to a work in the anthology and the second one presents a “mystery” work for you to identify. The quizzes will test your knowledge of the musical concepts across several chapters.
Composer biographies present brief overview of the lives of many of the composers presented in your textbook.
Chapter 33
Jazz and Popular Music
If you have not already done so, activate the registration code found in your textbook and listen to the selections on this site, or refer to your set of audio CDs.
Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
LEARN
The chapter and listening quizzes will help you practice for exams that cover the recordings, textbook and anthology. You can take these quizzes as often as you like, then send them to your instructor’s grade book, and keep track of your scores in your own Norton grade book.
Use the FlashCards to check your retention and understanding of the major terms, presented in boldface print in your textbook. You can print them out or download them to your computer.
Chapter 34
The Classical Tradition
If you have not already done so, activate the registration code found in your textbook and listen to the selections on this site, or refer to your set of audio CDs.
Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
LEARN
The chapter and listening quizzes will help you practice for exams that cover the recordings, textbook and anthology. You can take these quizzes as often as you like, then send them to your instructor’s grade book, and keep track of your scores in your own Norton grade book.
Use the FlashCards to check your retention and understanding of the major terms, presented in boldface print in your textbook. You can print them out or download them to your computer.
CONNECT
The Styles Quizzes in the Connect section of the site test your understanding of major concepts pertaining to genres and styles. These quizzes integrate musical excerpts and graphics. There are two quizzes for each era; one refers to a work in the anthology and the second one presents a “mystery” work for you to identify. The quizzes will test your knowledge of the musical concepts across several chapters.
Composer biographies present brief overview of the lives of many of the composers presented in your textbook.
Chapter 35 Postwar Crosscurrents
If you have not already done so, activate the registration code found in your textbook and listen to the selections on this site, or refer to your set of audio CDs.
Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
Chapter 36 The End of the Millennium
If you have not already done so, activate the registration code found in your textbook and listen to the selections on this site, or refer to your set of audio CDs.
Print out the chapter outline and refer to it, marking sections you have read or learned in lecture.
Access a selection of streamed examples from the anthology as well as additional works.
